Sufism and Ashari Theology: Historical and Intellectual Interconnections
This research examines the historical and intellectual relationship between Sufism and the Ashari school of theology. While often treated as distinct traditions within Islamic thought, there is compelling evidence of a deep and reciprocal connection between the two. Many prominent Ashari scholars were either directly involved with or sympathetic to Sufi teachings and practices, blending intellectual rigor with spiritual practice to achieve both theological clarity and ethical excellence.
Introduction to the Ashari School
The Ashari school of thought is attributed to Abu al-Hasan al-Ashari, a scholar from Basra who passed away in Baghdad in 324 AH. Emerging during the fourth Islamic century, the school developed gradually through the efforts of many renowned scholars, including Abu al-Hasan al-Bahili, Abu Bakr al-Baqillani, Abu al-Hasan al-Tabari, Abu Ishaq al-Isfarayini, Abu al-Qasim al-Qushayri, al-Juwayni (Imam al-Haramayn), Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, and Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, among others (Al-Saqqaf, 2023).
Over time, Asharism became a distinct theological system that incorporated aspects of philosophy and rational theology (kalam). Its scholars engaged in deep debates on metaphysics, divine attributes, and human agency, sometimes influenced by other theological schools such as Jabrism and Murji’ism. Despite criticism for introducing complexity into what some considered the straightforward teachings of the Salaf, Asharism ultimately became one of the most influential theological schools throughout Islamic history.
In the modern era, many Muslims identify as followers of the Ashari school, considering it the authentic representation of Sunni orthodoxy (Ahl al-Sunnah wa al-Jama‘ah) and the correct approach to matters of belief. As narrated by Anas bin Malik (may Allah be pleased with him), the Prophet ﷺ said:
“The Children of Israel divided into seventy-one sects, and my Ummah will divide into seventy-two sects; all of them will be in the Fire except one — and that is al-Jama‘ah.”
[Sunan Abu Dawood, al-Tirmidhi, Ibn Majah]
Historical Evolution of Asharism
Interestingly, the Ashari school was largely unknown to the early generations of Muslims, including the companions of the Prophet ﷺ and the early Salaf. Scholars note that Asharism fully emerged only after the third Islamic century, gradually evolving into a sophisticated system of metaphysical and philosophical inquiry. This intellectual expansion, though controversial at the time, allowed Ashari scholars to address theological and philosophical questions in depth, offering a nuanced understanding of Sunni orthodoxy while remaining committed to the core tenets of the faith (Al-Saqqaf, 2023).
Influence of the Kullabiyyah School
A significant precursor to Asharism was the Kullabiyyah school, founded by Abd Allah ibn Sa‘id ibn Kullab. Ibn Kullab lived during a period dominated by Mu‘tazilite influence over the Abbasid caliphs, particularly under Al-Ma’mun, Al-Mutasim, and Al-Wathiq, before Allah removed this trial during the reign of Al-Mutawakkil. Ibn Kullab sought to defend the creed of the Salaf through rational arguments, engaging in debates with both the Mu‘tazilah and the Jahmiyyah. Scholars consider him one of the early theologians of Ahl al-Sunnah wa al-Jama‘ah (Al-Khamis, 2005).
Later theologians, including Abu Mansur al-Maturidi and Abu al-Hasan al-Ashari, adopted and disseminated Kullabi ideas, spreading them widely throughout the Muslim world. Through this evolution, Kullabiyyah doctrines became foundational in shaping Ashari and Maturidi thought, illustrating the intellectual continuity that connected early rational theology to mainstream Sunni belief.
Defining Sufism
Sufism, as explained by Dr. Saeed Fouda (2025) in Al-Durra al-Fakhira fi Tahaqiq Madhhab al-Sufiyyah wa al-Hukama’ wa al-Mutakallimin, can be understood as acting upon Islamic law (Sharia). In essence, Sufism is a way of conduct, emphasizing ethical and spiritual discipline. Unlike Asharism, which is primarily a theological methodology, Sufism focuses on the purification of the heart, ethical refinement, and spiritual transformation. While not all Ashari scholars are Sufis and not all Sufis adhere to Ashari theology, many prominent Ashari figures integrated Sufi practices into their lives, demonstrating that theology and spiritual discipline are mutually reinforcing.
The Complementary Role of Sufism in Ashari Scholarship
Sufism serves a critical function for scholars engaged in theology, philosophy, and kalam. It provides a spiritual anchorthat prevents excessive reliance on rationalism alone. Sufism cultivates humility, softens the heart, and maintains harmony between the intellect and the spirit. Scholars have long noted that the ideal approach to Islamic knowledge integrates three dimensions: the jurisprudence of Imam Malik, the creed of Abu al-Hasan al-Ashari, and the spiritual path of Imam al-Junayd. This integration ensures that intellectual rigor does not come at the expense of ethical and spiritual development.
Historical Interactions Between Asharism and Sufism
Throughout history, many Ashari scholars engaged directly with Sufi thought. Imam al-Ashari himself reportedly met Imam al-Junayd, a foundational Sufi figure, demonstrating early interaction between Ashari kalam and Sufi practice (Al-Saqqaf, 2023). Other notable figures include Abu al-Hasan al-Shirazi, who was described as a “Shaykh of Sufism” by Al-Dhahabi, and Abdullah al-Khafif al-Shirazi, who was both a leading Ashari theologian and a prominent Sufi shaikh.
Imam Al-Ghazali: The Embodiment of Integration
Imam Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali exemplifies the seamless integration of Ashari theology and Sufi practice. While he defended Sunni orthodoxy and engaged deeply in philosophy and kalam, he also devoted himself to spiritual purification and ethical refinement. His monumental work, Ihya Ulum al-Din (Revival of the Religious Sciences), reflects the harmonious blend of intellectual rigor and spiritual depth.
Al-Ghazali approached Sufism methodically, first studying texts such as Qut al-Qulub by Abu Talib al-Makki, the writings of al-Harith al-Muhasibi, and the sayings of al-Junayd, al-Shibli, and Abu Yazid al-Bistami. He demonstrated that learning alone is insufficient without ethical and spiritual practice, and that Sufism serves as a protective framework against pride, intellectual arrogance, and deviation.
Al-Ghazali emphasized that the Sufi path begins with purifying the heart from everything except Allah, dedicating all actions to remembrance and obedience. For him, the integration of Ashari theology and Sufism was not merely theoretical; it was a lived experience that guided every aspect of his scholarship and personal life.
Practical Lessons from Al-Ghazali’s Life
Al-Ghazali’s life can be understood in three phases. His early years in Tous, Iran, were devoted to study and intellectual formation. He then rose to prominence as head of the Al-Nizamiyyah School in Iraq, engaging in philosophy and theology and achieving fame. However, recognizing the spiritual dangers of pursuing knowledge for status and recognition, he resigned from his position and embarked on a Sufi journey, focusing on purification of the heart and inner transformation. Eventually, he returned to Iran, dedicating his remaining years to teaching, writing, and practicing Sufism until his death in 505 AH.
Through this journey, Al-Ghazali demonstrated the importance of balancing intellect and heart, reason and spirituality, and intellectual pursuit with ethical and spiritual practice. His life offers a model for all students of knowledge, illustrating that true scholarship in Islam requires both rigorous study and sincere inner cultivation.
Conclusion
The historical and intellectual relationship between Sufism and Ashari theology is profound. Sufism was not a peripheral element but played a central role in shaping the ethical and spiritual dimensions of Ashari scholars. By fostering moral and spiritual refinement, Sufism complemented rational theology, enabling scholars like Al-Ghazali to achieve a balanced, holistic understanding of Islam. This interaction reflects a broader harmony within Sunni Islam, demonstrating that intellect and spirituality, reason and faith, can work together to produce a rich and enduring tradition.
References
Al-Ghazali, 505 AH. Savior from Delusion. Nour Library.
Al-Ghazali Website. Retrieved from: https://www.ghazali.org/articles/gz1.htm
Al-Khamis, M. (2005). A dialogue with an Ashari, followed by Al-Matridiyya is the foster daughter of Al-Asharis.
Al-Saqqaf, O. (2023). The Ash‘arites and Maturidites in the Scale of Ahl al-Sunnah wa’l-Jama‘ah (A Study and Definition).
Al-Shahristani, 548 AH. The Book of Sects and Creeds.
Foudah, S. (2025). Al-Durra al-Fakhira fi Tahaqiq Madhhab al-Sufiyyah wa al-Hukama’ wa al-Mutakallimin. Al-Aslayn Institute for Studies and Publishing.
