Exploring the Foundations of ʿIlm al-Kalām: A Personal Response

Author: Dr. Imam Sherif Ahmed

Having grown up in Saudi Arabia and Egypt, I was privileged to study with a variety of teachers in both countries. Yet, for reasons beyond my control, I was often steered away from ʿilm al-kalām. My teachers consistently advised me to devote my time to areas of knowledge that offered more immediate practical benefits in daily life. As a result, much of my early learning focused on jurisprudence, the biography (sīrah) of the Prophet ﷺ, Qur’anic sciences, purification of the heart, the lives of the Companions, an introduction to hadith studies, and a foundational study of Islamic creed (ʿaqīdah).

Despite this grounding, I remained deeply curious about ʿilm al-kalām, though opportunities to study it never entirely presented themselves. This course is therefore particularly meaningful for me, as it introduces me to a discipline I have long desired to explore. One of the accepted definitions of the Qur’an is that it is kalām Allāh—the speech of God—and this conception of Divine speech lies at the heart of theological inquiry. The discipline of kalām did not initially occupy a central place in the early Muslim community during the time of the Prophet ﷺ and the Rightly Guided Caliphs. Still, over time, through internal debates, the emergence of theological sects, and intellectual encounters with Greek philosophy, this science became indispensable. Its study is now critical for understanding both the historical development of Islamic thought and the enduring significance of theological reflection in the Muslim intellectual tradition.

Balancing Rational Inquiry and Lived Piety

M. Abdel Haleem begins his chapter by defining the science of kalām as “that branch of knowledge in Islam usually translated as speculative theology” (p. 71). Imām Mālik emphasized that those who engage in extensive discourse on Allah’s names, attributes, and speech, yet neglect adherence to the Sunnah of the Prophet ﷺ and the practices of the Companions, are overstepping appropriate bounds. The study of ʿilm al-kalām, therefore, must remain anchored to ethical practice and devotion, rather than venturing into speculative assertions about Allah’s speech, essence, or attributes. Imām Mālik’s position represents a careful balance between rational theological inquiry and practical adherence—privileging lived piety and the prophetic tradition over abstract disputation.

I found it particularly engaging to read what the distinguished scholar al-Taftāzānī said regarding the reasons behind the designation of ʿilm al-kalām. As Professor Fouad highlighted in our recent session, al-Taftāzānī offers several explanations for the historical development of this title. Historically, the term was applied to any discussion of a distinct issue that occurred during gatherings or conversations. Second, questions concerning the speech of Allah (kalām Allāh) became particularly prominent, as they were the subject of widespread debate and dispute. Third, the study of Allah’s speech endowed its scholars and students with the ability to engage in theological discussion and defend their positions (p. 72). Thus, ʿilm al-kalām emerged not only as an abstract discipline but also as a structured means of reasoning and debate within the framework of religious discourse.

Theology in the Formative Period

The second question posed is: “Under what definition of theology can we say that the Khārijites, Murjiʾites, Shīʿites, and the early Muslim community had a ‘theology’ in the formative period? Is this definition comparable to notions you came across in your secondary readings?” I found this particularly thought-provoking because of my interest in understanding how these groups influenced the development of ʿilm al-kalām.

Drawing on M. Abdel Haleem’s “Early Kalām,” I examined the famous discussion between ʿAbdullāh ibn ʿAbbās (raḍiy Allāhu ʿanhu) and some Khārijites who rebelled against ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib (raḍiy Allāhu ʿanhu). They objected to his decision to appoint men as judges, his choice not to take booty in fighting Muslims, and his relinquishing of the title “Commander of the Faithful” (p. 73). Ibn ʿAbbās’s responses were profound and logical; as Abdel Haleem notes, both parties employed logical disjunction in their reasoning (p. 73).

Throughout Islamic history, theological debates evolved with the issues of the time. During the Prophet’s ﷺ life, discussions centered on belief and destiny (qadar). Under the Rightly Guided Caliphs, questions of khilāfah (leadership) became central. The internal conflicts of the caliphates of ʿUthmān and ʿAlī (raḍiy Allāhu ʿanhumā) introduced the problem of fitnah (civil strife) and political legitimacy. These developments gave rise to sects such as the Khārijites, Murjiʾites, and later the Shīʿa—marking the beginnings of enduring theological and political divisions within the ummah(p. 78).

To determine whether such groups possessed a theology, we must define what “theology” entails. It can be understood as the systematic effort to comprehend, articulate, and interpret foundational beliefs about Allah (SWT), Divine justice, sin, and revelation’s role in shaping human life and society. The Khārijites held that anyone who committed a major sin ceased to be a believer—a theological stance linking morality to salvation. The Murjiʾites, conversely, maintained that sin did not affect faith so long as belief remained in the heart, deferring ultimate judgment to Allah. The Shīʿa, meanwhile, centered their theology on imāmah—leadership divinely designated through the Prophet’s household (Ahl al-Bayt). The martyrdom of al-Ḥusayn (raḍiy Allāhu ʿanhu) at Karbalāʾ became a defining event that intertwined their theology with historical experience.

Leadership, Sectarianism, and the Growth of Kalām

This emphasis on leadership through Ahl al-Bayt contrasted sharply with the Sunni view, which saw the caliphate as a matter of communal consensus (ijmāʿ) and governance rather than Divine appointment. These early disagreements over leadership laid the groundwork for lasting theological and political divisions. Later, during the Abbasid period, ʿilm al-kalām developed further through new controversies, such as whether the Qur’an was created or uncreated—a debate that culminated in the miḥnah of Imām Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal (d. 241 AH).

Abdel Haleem also recounts an encounter between Abū Ḥanīfah (d. 150 AH) and his son, in which the father discouraged speculative theology while the son defended it. This exchange illustrates how ʿilm al-kalām was both intellectually stimulating and potentially divisive, even within a single family. Some scholars considered kalām a religious obligation, necessary to protect Islamic belief and address doubts, while others cautioned against its excesses (p. 81).

Abdel Haleem emphasizes that the formative period of Islamic thought was marked not by a fully developed discipline but by “occasional theology”—unsystematic responses to emerging challenges. These early debates laid the foundation for later systematic kalām, integrating reasoned argumentation into theological discourse. Broadly understood, theology encompasses any reflection on God and belief; in that sense, the Khārijites, Murjiʾites, and Shīʿa all contributed to its early formation.

Conclusion

Studying the roots of ʿilm al-kalām and the rise of theological sects offers invaluable perspective for our own time. In a world characterized by difference and disunity, we can learn from early Muslim scholars who navigated intellectual disagreements with rigor and faithfulness. Their example shows that theological debate, when grounded in sincerity and scholarship, strengthens the ummah rather than dividing it—preserving both the unity and integrity of Islamic belief.

References

Abdel Haleem, M. A. S. (1993). Early Kalām. In M. A. S. Abdel Haleem, Exploring the Qur’an: Context and Impact (pp. 71–81).
al-Bukhārī, Muḥammad ibn Ismāʿīl. (n.d.). Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī.
al-Taftāzānī, Saʿd al-Dīn. (n.d.). Sharḥ al-ʿAqāʾid al-Nasafiyyah.
Qur’an. (1999). Translated by M. A. S. Abdel Haleem. Oxford University Press.
Mālik ibn Anas. (n.d.). al-Muwaṭṭaʾ.